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<li><a href="./">Spatial Analysis in R</a></li>
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<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="preface.html"><a href="preface.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Preface</a>
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<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="preface.html"><a href="preface.html#spatial-analysis-and-spatial-statistics"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Spatial Analysis and Spatial Statistics</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="preface.html"><a href="preface.html#why-this-text"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Why this Text?</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="preface.html"><a href="preface.html#plan"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Plan</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="preface.html"><a href="preface.html#audience"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Audience</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="preface.html"><a href="preface.html#requisites"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Requisites</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="preface.html"><a href="preface.html#words-of-appreciation"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Words of Appreciation</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="preface.html"><a href="preface.html#versioning"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Versioning</a></li>
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<li class="part"><span><b>I Part I: Getting to Know the Technology</b></span></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1" data-path="preliminaries-installing-r-and-rstudio.html"><a href="preliminaries-installing-r-and-rstudio.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1</b> Preliminaries: Installing <code>R</code> and RStudio</a>
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<li class="chapter" data-level="1.1" data-path="preliminaries-installing-r-and-rstudio.html"><a href="preliminaries-installing-r-and-rstudio.html#introduction"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.1</b> Introduction</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.2" data-path="preliminaries-installing-r-and-rstudio.html"><a href="preliminaries-installing-r-and-rstudio.html#learning-objectives"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.2</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.3" data-path="preliminaries-installing-r-and-rstudio.html"><a href="preliminaries-installing-r-and-rstudio.html#r-the-open-statistical-computing-project"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.3</b> <code>R</code>: The Open Statistical Computing Project</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.3.1" data-path="preliminaries-installing-r-and-rstudio.html"><a href="preliminaries-installing-r-and-rstudio.html#what-is-r"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.3.1</b> What is <code>R</code>?</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.3.2" data-path="preliminaries-installing-r-and-rstudio.html"><a href="preliminaries-installing-r-and-rstudio.html#the-rstudio-ide"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.3.2</b> The RStudio IDE</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.4" data-path="preliminaries-installing-r-and-rstudio.html"><a href="preliminaries-installing-r-and-rstudio.html#packages-in-r"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.4</b> Packages in R</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2" data-path="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html"><a href="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2</b> Basic Operations and Data Structures in <code>R</code></a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.1" data-path="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html"><a href="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html#learning-objectives-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.1</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.2" data-path="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html"><a href="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html#rstudio-ide"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.2</b> RStudio IDE</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.3" data-path="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html"><a href="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html#some-basic-operations"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.3</b> Some Basic Operations</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.4" data-path="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html"><a href="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html#data-classes-in-r"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.4</b> Data Classes in R</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.5" data-path="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html"><a href="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html#data-types-in-r"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.5</b> Data Types in R</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.6" data-path="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html"><a href="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html#indexing-and-data-transformations"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.6</b> Indexing and Data Transformations</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.7" data-path="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html"><a href="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html#visualization"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.7</b> Visualization</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.8" data-path="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html"><a href="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html#creating-a-simple-map"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.8</b> Creating a Simple Map</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.9" data-path="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html"><a href="basic-operations-and-data-structures-in-r.html#references"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.9</b> References</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="part"><span><b>II Part II: Statistics and Maps</b></span></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3" data-path="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html"><a href="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3</b> Introduction to Mapping in <code>R</code></a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.1" data-path="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html"><a href="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html#learning-objectives-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.1</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.2" data-path="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html"><a href="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html#suggested-readings"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.2</b> Suggested Readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.3" data-path="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html"><a href="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html#preliminaries"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.4" data-path="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html"><a href="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html#packages"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.4</b> Packages</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.5" data-path="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html"><a href="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html#exploring-dataframes-and-a-simple-proportional-symbols-map"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.5</b> Exploring Dataframes and a Simple Proportional Symbols Map</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.6" data-path="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html"><a href="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html#improving-on-the-proportional-symbols-map"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.6</b> Improving on the Proportional Symbols Map</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.7" data-path="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html"><a href="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html#some-simple-spatial-analysis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.7</b> Some Simple Spatial Analysis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.8" data-path="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html"><a href="introduction-to-mapping-in-r.html#other-resources"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.8</b> Other Resources</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4" data-path="activity-1-statistical-maps-i.html"><a href="activity-1-statistical-maps-i.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4</b> Activity 1: Statistical Maps I</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1" data-path="activity-1-statistical-maps-i.html"><a href="activity-1-statistical-maps-i.html#housekeeping-questions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1</b> Housekeeping Questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.2" data-path="activity-1-statistical-maps-i.html"><a href="activity-1-statistical-maps-i.html#learning-objectives-3"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.2</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.3" data-path="activity-1-statistical-maps-i.html"><a href="activity-1-statistical-maps-i.html#preliminaries-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.4" data-path="activity-1-statistical-maps-i.html"><a href="activity-1-statistical-maps-i.html#creating-a-simple-thematic-map"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.4</b> Creating a simple thematic map</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.5" data-path="activity-1-statistical-maps-i.html"><a href="activity-1-statistical-maps-i.html#activity"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5" data-path="mapping-in-r-continued.html"><a href="mapping-in-r-continued.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5</b> Mapping in R: Continued</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.1" data-path="mapping-in-r-continued.html"><a href="mapping-in-r-continued.html#learning-objectives-4"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.1</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.2" data-path="mapping-in-r-continued.html"><a href="mapping-in-r-continued.html#suggested-readings-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.2</b> Suggested Readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.3" data-path="mapping-in-r-continued.html"><a href="mapping-in-r-continued.html#preliminaries-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.4" data-path="mapping-in-r-continued.html"><a href="mapping-in-r-continued.html#summarizing-a-dataframe"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.4</b> Summarizing a Dataframe</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.5" data-path="mapping-in-r-continued.html"><a href="mapping-in-r-continued.html#factors"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.5</b> Factors</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.6" data-path="mapping-in-r-continued.html"><a href="mapping-in-r-continued.html#subsetting-data"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.6</b> Subsetting Data</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.7" data-path="mapping-in-r-continued.html"><a href="mapping-in-r-continued.html#pipe-operator"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.7</b> Pipe Operator</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.8" data-path="mapping-in-r-continued.html"><a href="mapping-in-r-continued.html#more-on-visualization"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.8</b> More on Visualization</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6" data-path="activity-2-statistical-maps-ii.html"><a href="activity-2-statistical-maps-ii.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6</b> Activity 2: Statistical Maps II</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.1" data-path="activity-2-statistical-maps-ii.html"><a href="activity-2-statistical-maps-ii.html#housekeeping-questions-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.1</b> Housekeeping Questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2" data-path="activity-2-statistical-maps-ii.html"><a href="activity-2-statistical-maps-ii.html#learning-objectives-5"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.3" data-path="activity-2-statistical-maps-ii.html"><a href="activity-2-statistical-maps-ii.html#suggested-reading"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.4" data-path="activity-2-statistical-maps-ii.html"><a href="activity-2-statistical-maps-ii.html#preliminaries-3"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.5" data-path="activity-2-statistical-maps-ii.html"><a href="activity-2-statistical-maps-ii.html#activity-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7" data-path="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html"><a href="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7</b> Maps as Processes: Null Landscapes, Spatial Processes, and Statistical Maps</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1" data-path="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html"><a href="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html#learning-objectives-6"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.2" data-path="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html"><a href="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html#suggested-readings-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.2</b> Suggested Readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.3" data-path="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html"><a href="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html#preliminaries-4"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.4" data-path="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html"><a href="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html#random-numbers"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.4</b> Random Numbers</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.5" data-path="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html"><a href="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html#null-landscapes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.5</b> Null Landscapes</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.6" data-path="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html"><a href="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html#stochastic-processes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.6</b> Stochastic Processes</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.7" data-path="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html"><a href="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html#simulating-spatial-processes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.7</b> Simulating Spatial Processes</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.8" data-path="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html"><a href="maps-as-processes-null-landscapes-spatial-processes-and-statistical-maps.html#processes-and-patterns"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.8</b> Processes and Patterns</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8" data-path="activity-3-maps-as-processes.html"><a href="activity-3-maps-as-processes.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8</b> Activity 3: Maps as Processes</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.1" data-path="activity-3-maps-as-processes.html"><a href="activity-3-maps-as-processes.html#practice-questions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.1</b> Practice Questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.2" data-path="activity-3-maps-as-processes.html"><a href="activity-3-maps-as-processes.html#learning-objectives-7"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.2</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.3" data-path="activity-3-maps-as-processes.html"><a href="activity-3-maps-as-processes.html#suggested-reading-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.3</b> Suggested Reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.4" data-path="activity-3-maps-as-processes.html"><a href="activity-3-maps-as-processes.html#preliminaries-5"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.5" data-path="activity-3-maps-as-processes.html"><a href="activity-3-maps-as-processes.html#activity-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="part"><span><b>III Part III: Analysis of Point Patterns</b></span></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9</b> Point Pattern Analysis I</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.1" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-i.html#learning-objectives-8"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.1</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.2" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-i.html#suggested-readings-3"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.2</b> Suggested Readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.3" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-i.html#preliminaries-6"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.4" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-i.html#point-patterns"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.4</b> Point Patterns</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.5" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-i.html#processes-and-point-patterns"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.5</b> Processes and Point Patterns</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.6" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-i.html#intensity-and-density"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.6</b> Intensity and Density</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.7" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-i.html#quadrats-and-density-maps"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.7</b> Quadrats and Density Maps</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.8" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-i.html#defining-the-region-for-analysis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.8</b> Defining the Region for Analysis</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10" data-path="activity-4-point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="activity-4-point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10</b> Activity 4: Point Pattern Analysis I</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.1" data-path="activity-4-point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="activity-4-point-pattern-analysis-i.html#practice-questions-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.2" data-path="activity-4-point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="activity-4-point-pattern-analysis-i.html#learning-objectives-9"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.3" data-path="activity-4-point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="activity-4-point-pattern-analysis-i.html#suggested-reading-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.4" data-path="activity-4-point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="activity-4-point-pattern-analysis-i.html#preliminaries-7"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.5" data-path="activity-4-point-pattern-analysis-i.html"><a href="activity-4-point-pattern-analysis-i.html#activity-3"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11</b> Point Pattern Analysis II</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.1" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html#learning-objectives-10"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.1</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.2" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html#suggested-readings-4"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.2</b> Suggested Readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.3" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html#preliminaries-8"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.4" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html#a-quadrat-based-test-for-spatial-independence"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.4</b> A Quadrat-based Test for Spatial Independence</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.5" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html#limitations-of-quadrat-analysis-size-and-number-of-quadrats"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.5</b> Limitations of Quadrat Analysis: Size and Number of Quadrats</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.6" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html#limitations-of-quadrat-analysis-relative-position-of-events"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.6</b> Limitations of Quadrat Analysis: Relative Position of Events</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.7" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-ii.html#kernel-density"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.7</b> Kernel Density</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12" data-path="activity-5-point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><a href="activity-5-point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12</b> Activity 5: Point Pattern Analysis II</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.1" data-path="activity-5-point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><a href="activity-5-point-pattern-analysis-ii.html#practice-questions-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.2" data-path="activity-5-point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><a href="activity-5-point-pattern-analysis-ii.html#learning-objectives-11"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.3" data-path="activity-5-point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><a href="activity-5-point-pattern-analysis-ii.html#suggested-reading-3"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.4" data-path="activity-5-point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><a href="activity-5-point-pattern-analysis-ii.html#preliminaries-9"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.5" data-path="activity-5-point-pattern-analysis-ii.html"><a href="activity-5-point-pattern-analysis-ii.html#activity-4"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13</b> Point Pattern Analysis III</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.1" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-iii.html#learning-objectives-12"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.1</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.2" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-iii.html#suggested-readings-5"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.2</b> Suggested Readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.3" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-iii.html#preliminaries-10"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.4" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-iii.html#motivation"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.4</b> Motivation</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.5" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-iii.html#nearest-neighbors"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.5</b> Nearest Neighbors</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.6" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-iii.html#g-function"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.6</b> <span class="math inline">\(G\)</span>-function</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14" data-path="activity-6-point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><a href="activity-6-point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14</b> Activity 6: Point Pattern Analysis III</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1" data-path="activity-6-point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><a href="activity-6-point-pattern-analysis-iii.html#practice-questions-3"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.2" data-path="activity-6-point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><a href="activity-6-point-pattern-analysis-iii.html#learning-objectives-13"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.3" data-path="activity-6-point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><a href="activity-6-point-pattern-analysis-iii.html#suggested-reading-4"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.4" data-path="activity-6-point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><a href="activity-6-point-pattern-analysis-iii.html#preliminaries-11"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.5" data-path="activity-6-point-pattern-analysis-iii.html"><a href="activity-6-point-pattern-analysis-iii.html#activity-5"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15</b> Point Pattern Analysis IV</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.1" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-iv.html#learning-objectives-14"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.1</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.2" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-iv.html#suggested-readings-6"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.2</b> Suggested Readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.3" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-iv.html#preliminaries-12"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.4" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-iv.html#motivation-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.4</b> Motivation</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.5" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-iv.html#f-function"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.5</b> F-function</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-iv.html#hatk-function"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6</b> <span class="math inline">\(\hat{K}\)</span>-function</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="16" data-path="activity-7-point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><a href="activity-7-point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>16</b> Activity 7: Point Pattern Analysis IV</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="16.1" data-path="activity-7-point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><a href="activity-7-point-pattern-analysis-iv.html#practice-questions-4"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>16.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="16.2" data-path="activity-7-point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><a href="activity-7-point-pattern-analysis-iv.html#learning-objectives-15"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>16.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="16.3" data-path="activity-7-point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><a href="activity-7-point-pattern-analysis-iv.html#suggested-reading-5"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>16.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="16.4" data-path="activity-7-point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><a href="activity-7-point-pattern-analysis-iv.html#preliminaries-13"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>16.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="16.5" data-path="activity-7-point-pattern-analysis-iv.html"><a href="activity-7-point-pattern-analysis-iv.html#activity-6"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>16.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17</b> Point Pattern Analysis V</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17.1" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-v.html#learning-objectives-16"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17.1</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17.2" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-v.html#suggested-readings-7"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17.2</b> Suggested Readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17.3" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-v.html#preliminaries-14"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17.4" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-v.html#motivation-hypothesis-testing"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17.4</b> Motivation: Hypothesis Testing</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17.5" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-v.html#null-landscapes-revisited"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17.5</b> Null Landscapes Revisited</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17.6" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-v.html#simulation-envelopes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17.6</b> Simulation Envelopes</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17.7" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-v.html#things-to-keep-in-mind"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17.7</b> Things to Keep in Mind!</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17.7.1" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-v.html#definition-of-a-region"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17.7.1</b> Definition of a Region</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17.7.2" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-v.html#edge-effects"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17.7.2</b> Edge Effects</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17.7.3" data-path="point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="point-pattern-analysis-v.html#sampled-point-patterns"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17.7.3</b> Sampled Point Patterns</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="18" data-path="activity-8-point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="activity-8-point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>18</b> Activity 8: Point Pattern Analysis V</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="18.1" data-path="activity-8-point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="activity-8-point-pattern-analysis-v.html#practice-questions-5"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>18.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="18.2" data-path="activity-8-point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="activity-8-point-pattern-analysis-v.html#learning-objectives-17"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>18.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="18.3" data-path="activity-8-point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="activity-8-point-pattern-analysis-v.html#suggested-reading-6"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>18.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="18.4" data-path="activity-8-point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="activity-8-point-pattern-analysis-v.html#preliminaries-15"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>18.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="18.5" data-path="activity-8-point-pattern-analysis-v.html"><a href="activity-8-point-pattern-analysis-v.html#activity-7"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>18.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="part"><span><b>IV Part IV: Data in Areal Units</b></span></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="19" data-path="area-data-i.html"><a href="area-data-i.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>19</b> Area Data I</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="19.1" data-path="area-data-i.html"><a href="area-data-i.html#learning-objectives-18"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>19.1</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="19.2" data-path="area-data-i.html"><a href="area-data-i.html#suggested-readings-8"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>19.2</b> Suggested Readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="19.3" data-path="area-data-i.html"><a href="area-data-i.html#preliminaries-16"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>19.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="19.4" data-path="area-data-i.html"><a href="area-data-i.html#area-data"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>19.4</b> Area Data</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="19.5" data-path="area-data-i.html"><a href="area-data-i.html#processes-and-area-data"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>19.5</b> Processes and Area Data</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="19.6" data-path="area-data-i.html"><a href="area-data-i.html#visualizing-area-data-choropleth-maps"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>19.6</b> Visualizing Area Data: Choropleth Maps</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="19.7" data-path="area-data-i.html"><a href="area-data-i.html#visualizing-area-data-cartograms"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>19.7</b> Visualizing Area Data: Cartograms</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="20" data-path="activity-9-area-data-i.html"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>20</b> Activity 9: Area Data I</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="20.1" data-path="activity-9-area-data-i.html"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#practice-questions-6"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>20.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="20.2" data-path="activity-9-area-data-i.html"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#learning-objectives-19"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>20.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="20.3" data-path="activity-9-area-data-i.html"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#suggested-reading-7"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>20.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="20.4" data-path="activity-9-area-data-i.html"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#preliminaries-17"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>20.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="20.5" data-path="activity-9-area-data-i.html"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#activity-8"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>20.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="21" data-path="area-data-ii.html"><a href="area-data-ii.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>21</b> Area Data II</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="21.1" data-path="area-data-ii.html"><a href="area-data-ii.html#learning-objectives-20"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>21.1</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="21.2" data-path="area-data-ii.html"><a href="area-data-ii.html#suggested-readings-9"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>21.2</b> Suggested Readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="21.3" data-path="area-data-ii.html"><a href="area-data-ii.html#preliminaries-18"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>21.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="21.4" data-path="area-data-ii.html"><a href="area-data-ii.html#proximity-in-area-data"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>21.4</b> Proximity in Area Data</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="21.5" data-path="area-data-ii.html"><a href="area-data-ii.html#spatial-weights-matrices"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>21.5</b> Spatial Weights Matrices</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="21.6" data-path="area-data-ii.html"><a href="area-data-ii.html#creating-spatial-weights-matrices-in-r"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>21.6</b> Creating Spatial Weights Matrices in <code>R</code></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="21.7" data-path="area-data-ii.html"><a href="area-data-ii.html#spatial-moving-averages"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>21.7</b> Spatial Moving Averages</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="21.8" data-path="area-data-ii.html"><a href="area-data-ii.html#other-criteria-for-coding-proximity"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>21.8</b> Other Criteria for Coding Proximity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="22" data-path="activity-10-area-data-ii.html"><a href="activity-10-area-data-ii.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>22</b> Activity 10: Area Data II</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="22.1" data-path="activity-10-area-data-ii.html"><a href="activity-10-area-data-ii.html#practice-questions-7"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>22.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="22.2" data-path="activity-10-area-data-ii.html"><a href="activity-10-area-data-ii.html#learning-objectives-21"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>22.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="22.3" data-path="activity-10-area-data-ii.html"><a href="activity-10-area-data-ii.html#suggested-reading-8"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>22.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="22.4" data-path="activity-10-area-data-ii.html"><a href="activity-10-area-data-ii.html#preliminaries-19"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>22.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="22.5" data-path="activity-10-area-data-ii.html"><a href="activity-10-area-data-ii.html#activity-9"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>22.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="23" data-path="area-data-iii.html"><a href="area-data-iii.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>23</b> Area Data III</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="23.1" data-path="area-data-iii.html"><a href="area-data-iii.html#learning-objectives-22"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>23.1</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="23.2" data-path="area-data-iii.html"><a href="area-data-iii.html#suggested-readings-10"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>23.2</b> Suggested Readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="23.3" data-path="area-data-iii.html"><a href="area-data-iii.html#preliminaries-20"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>23.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="23.4" data-path="area-data-iii.html"><a href="area-data-iii.html#spatial-moving-averages-and-simulation"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>23.4</b> Spatial Moving Averages and Simulation</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="23.5" data-path="area-data-iii.html"><a href="area-data-iii.html#the-spatial-moving-average-as-a-smoother"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>23.5</b> The Spatial Moving Average as a Smoother</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="23.6" data-path="area-data-iii.html"><a href="area-data-iii.html#spatial-moving-average-scatterplots"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>23.6</b> Spatial Moving Average Scatterplots</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="23.7" data-path="area-data-iii.html"><a href="area-data-iii.html#spatial-autocorrelation-and-morans-i-coefficient"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>23.7</b> Spatial Autocorrelation and Moran’s <span class="math inline">\(I\)</span> coefficient</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="23.8" data-path="area-data-iii.html"><a href="area-data-iii.html#morans-i-and-morans-scatterplot"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>23.8</b> Moran’s <span class="math inline">\(I\)</span> and Moran’s Scatterplot</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="23.9" data-path="area-data-iii.html"><a href="area-data-iii.html#hypothesis-testing-for-spatial-autocorrelation"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>23.9</b> Hypothesis Testing for Spatial Autocorrelation</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="24" data-path="activity-11-area-data-iii.html"><a href="activity-11-area-data-iii.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>24</b> Activity 11: Area Data III</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="24.1" data-path="activity-11-area-data-iii.html"><a href="activity-11-area-data-iii.html#practice-questions-8"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>24.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="24.2" data-path="activity-11-area-data-iii.html"><a href="activity-11-area-data-iii.html#learning-objectives-23"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>24.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="24.3" data-path="activity-11-area-data-iii.html"><a href="activity-11-area-data-iii.html#suggested-reading-9"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>24.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="24.4" data-path="activity-11-area-data-iii.html"><a href="activity-11-area-data-iii.html#preliminaries-21"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>24.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="24.5" data-path="activity-11-area-data-iii.html"><a href="activity-11-area-data-iii.html#activity-10"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>24.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="25" data-path="area-data-iv.html"><a href="area-data-iv.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>25</b> Area Data IV</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="25.1" data-path="area-data-iv.html"><a href="area-data-iv.html#learning-objectives-24"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>25.1</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="25.2" data-path="area-data-iv.html"><a href="area-data-iv.html#suggested-readings-11"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>25.2</b> Suggested readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="25.3" data-path="area-data-iv.html"><a href="area-data-iv.html#preliminaries-22"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>25.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="25.4" data-path="area-data-iv.html"><a href="area-data-iv.html#decomposing-morans-i"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>25.4</b> Decomposing Moran’s <span class="math inline">\(I\)</span></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="25.5" data-path="area-data-iv.html"><a href="area-data-iv.html#local-morans-i-and-mapping"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>25.5</b> Local Moran’s <span class="math inline">\(I\)</span> and Mapping</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="25.6" data-path="area-data-iv.html"><a href="area-data-iv.html#a-quick-note-on-functions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>25.6</b> A Quick Note on Functions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="25.7" data-path="area-data-iv.html"><a href="area-data-iv.html#a-concentration-approach-for-local-analysis-of-spatial-association"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>25.7</b> A Concentration approach for Local Analysis of Spatial Association</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="25.8" data-path="area-data-iv.html"><a href="area-data-iv.html#a-short-note-on-hypothesis-testing"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>25.8</b> A Short Note on Hypothesis Testing</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="25.9" data-path="area-data-iv.html"><a href="area-data-iv.html#detection-of-hot-and-cold-spots"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>25.9</b> Detection of Hot and Cold Spots</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="25.10" data-path="area-data-iv.html"><a href="area-data-iv.html#other-resources-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>25.10</b> Other Resources</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="26" data-path="activity-12-area-data-iv.html"><a href="activity-12-area-data-iv.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>26</b> Activity 12: Area Data IV</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="26.1" data-path="activity-12-area-data-iv.html"><a href="activity-12-area-data-iv.html#practice-questions-9"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>26.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="26.2" data-path="activity-12-area-data-iv.html"><a href="activity-12-area-data-iv.html#learning-objectives-25"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>26.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="26.3" data-path="activity-12-area-data-iv.html"><a href="activity-12-area-data-iv.html#suggested-reading-10"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>26.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="26.4" data-path="activity-12-area-data-iv.html"><a href="activity-12-area-data-iv.html#preliminaries-23"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>26.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="26.5" data-path="activity-12-area-data-iv.html"><a href="activity-12-area-data-iv.html#activity-11"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>26.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="27" data-path="area-data-v.html"><a href="area-data-v.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>27</b> Area Data V</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="27.1" data-path="area-data-v.html"><a href="area-data-v.html#learning-objectives-26"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>27.1</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="27.2" data-path="area-data-v.html"><a href="area-data-v.html#suggested-readings-12"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>27.2</b> Suggested Readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="27.3" data-path="area-data-v.html"><a href="area-data-v.html#preliminaries-24"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>27.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="27.4" data-path="area-data-v.html"><a href="area-data-v.html#regression-analysis-in-r"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>27.4</b> Regression Analysis in <code>R</code></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="27.5" data-path="area-data-v.html"><a href="area-data-v.html#autocorrelation-as-a-model-diagnostic"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>27.5</b> Autocorrelation as a Model Diagnostic</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="27.6" data-path="area-data-v.html"><a href="area-data-v.html#variable-transformations"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>27.6</b> Variable Transformations</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="27.7" data-path="area-data-v.html"><a href="area-data-v.html#a-note-about-spatial-autocorrelation-in-regression-analysis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>27.7</b> A Note about Spatial Autocorrelation in Regression Analysis</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="28" data-path="activity-13-area-data-v.html"><a href="activity-13-area-data-v.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>28</b> Activity 13: Area Data V</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="28.1" data-path="activity-13-area-data-v.html"><a href="activity-13-area-data-v.html#practice-questions-10"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>28.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="28.2" data-path="activity-13-area-data-v.html"><a href="activity-13-area-data-v.html#learning-objectives-27"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>28.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="28.3" data-path="activity-13-area-data-v.html"><a href="activity-13-area-data-v.html#suggested-reading-11"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>28.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="28.4" data-path="activity-13-area-data-v.html"><a href="activity-13-area-data-v.html#preliminaries-25"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>28.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="28.5" data-path="activity-13-area-data-v.html"><a href="activity-13-area-data-v.html#activity-12"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>28.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="29" data-path="area-data-vi.html"><a href="area-data-vi.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>29</b> Area Data VI</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="29.1" data-path="area-data-vi.html"><a href="area-data-vi.html#learning-objectives-28"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>29.1</b> Learning Objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="29.2" data-path="area-data-vi.html"><a href="area-data-vi.html#suggested-readings-13"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>29.2</b> Suggested Readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="29.3" data-path="area-data-vi.html"><a href="area-data-vi.html#preliminaries-26"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>29.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="29.4" data-path="area-data-vi.html"><a href="area-data-vi.html#residual-spatial-autocorrelation-revisited"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>29.4</b> Residual spatial autocorrelation revisited</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="29.4.1" data-path="area-data-vi.html"><a href="area-data-vi.html#incorrect-functional-form"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>29.4.1</b> Incorrect Functional Form</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="29.4.2" data-path="area-data-vi.html"><a href="area-data-vi.html#omitted-variables"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>29.4.2</b> Omitted Variables</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="29.5" data-path="area-data-vi.html"><a href="area-data-vi.html#remedial-action"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>29.5</b> Remedial Action</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="29.6" data-path="area-data-vi.html"><a href="area-data-vi.html#flexible-functional-forms-and-models-with-spatially-varying-coefficients"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>29.6</b> Flexible Functional Forms and Models with Spatially-varying Coefficients</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="29.6.1" data-path="area-data-vi.html"><a href="area-data-vi.html#trend-surface-analysis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>29.6.1</b> Trend Surface Analysis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="29.6.2" data-path="area-data-vi.html"><a href="area-data-vi.html#models-with-spatially-varying-coefficients"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>29.6.2</b> Models with Spatially-varying Coefficients</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="29.7" data-path="area-data-vi.html"><a href="area-data-vi.html#spatial-error-model-sem"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>29.7</b> Spatial Error Model (SEM)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="30" data-path="activity-14-area-data-vi.html"><a href="activity-14-area-data-vi.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>30</b> Activity 14: Area Data VI</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="30.1" data-path="activity-14-area-data-vi.html"><a href="activity-14-area-data-vi.html#practice-questions-11"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>30.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="30.2" data-path="activity-14-area-data-vi.html"><a href="activity-14-area-data-vi.html#learning-objectives-29"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>30.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="30.3" data-path="activity-14-area-data-vi.html"><a href="activity-14-area-data-vi.html#suggested-reading-12"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>30.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="30.4" data-path="activity-14-area-data-vi.html"><a href="activity-14-area-data-vi.html#preliminaries-27"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>30.4</b> Preliminaries</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="30.4.1" data-path="activity-14-area-data-vi.html"><a href="activity-14-area-data-vi.html#new-york-leukemia-data"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>30.4.1</b> New York leukemia data</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="30.4.2" data-path="activity-14-area-data-vi.html"><a href="activity-14-area-data-vi.html#pennsylvania-lung-cancer"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>30.4.2</b> Pennsylvania lung cancer</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="30.5" data-path="activity-14-area-data-vi.html"><a href="activity-14-area-data-vi.html#activity-13"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>30.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="part"><span><b>V Part V: Analysis and Prediction of Fields</b></span></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="31" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>31</b> Spatially Continuous Data I</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="31.1" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-i.html#learning-objectives-30"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>31.1</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="31.2" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-i.html#suggested-readings-14"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>31.2</b> Suggested readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="31.3" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-i.html#preliminaries-28"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>31.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="31.4" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-i.html#spatially-continuous-field-data"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>31.4</b> Spatially continuous (field) data</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="31.5" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-i.html#exploratory-visualization"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>31.5</b> Exploratory visualization</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="31.6" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-i.html#tile-based-methods"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>31.6</b> Tile-based methods</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="31.7" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-i.html#inverse-distance-weighting-idw"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>31.7</b> Inverse distance weighting (IDW)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="31.8" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-i.html#k-point-means"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>31.8</b> <span class="math inline">\(k\)</span>-point means</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="32" data-path="activity-15-spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="activity-15-spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>32</b> Activity 15: Spatially Continuous Data I</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="32.1" data-path="activity-15-spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="activity-15-spatially-continuous-data-i.html#practice-questions-12"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>32.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="32.2" data-path="activity-15-spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="activity-15-spatially-continuous-data-i.html#learning-objectives-31"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>32.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="32.3" data-path="activity-15-spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="activity-15-spatially-continuous-data-i.html#suggested-reading-13"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>32.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="32.4" data-path="activity-15-spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="activity-15-spatially-continuous-data-i.html#preliminaries-29"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>32.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="32.5" data-path="activity-15-spatially-continuous-data-i.html"><a href="activity-15-spatially-continuous-data-i.html#activity-14"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>32.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="33" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>33</b> Spatially Continuous Data II</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="33.1" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-ii.html#learning-objectives-32"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>33.1</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="33.2" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-ii.html#suggested-readings-15"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>33.2</b> Suggested readings</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="33.3" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-ii.html#preliminaries-30"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>33.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="33.4" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-ii.html#uncertainty-in-the-predictions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>33.4</b> Uncertainty in the predictions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="33.5" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-ii.html#trend-surface-analysis-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>33.5</b> Trend surface analysis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="33.6" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-ii.html#accuracy-and-precision"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>33.6</b> Accuracy and precision</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="34" data-path="activity-16-spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><a href="activity-16-spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>34</b> Activity 16: Spatially Continuous Data II</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="34.1" data-path="activity-16-spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><a href="activity-16-spatially-continuous-data-ii.html#practice-questions-13"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>34.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="34.2" data-path="activity-16-spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><a href="activity-16-spatially-continuous-data-ii.html#learning-objectives-33"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>34.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="34.3" data-path="activity-16-spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><a href="activity-16-spatially-continuous-data-ii.html#suggested-reading-14"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>34.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="34.4" data-path="activity-16-spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><a href="activity-16-spatially-continuous-data-ii.html#preliminaries-31"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>34.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="34.5" data-path="activity-16-spatially-continuous-data-ii.html"><a href="activity-16-spatially-continuous-data-ii.html#activity-15"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>34.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="35" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>35</b> Spatially Continuous Data III</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="35.1" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-iii.html#learning-objectives-34"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>35.1</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="35.2" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-iii.html#suggested-reading-15"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>35.2</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="35.3" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-iii.html#preliminaries-32"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>35.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="35.4" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-iii.html#residual-spatial-pattern"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>35.4</b> Residual spatial pattern</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="35.5" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-iii.html#measuring-spatial-dependence-in-spatially-continuous-data"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>35.5</b> Measuring spatial dependence in spatially continuous data</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="35.6" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-iii.html#variographic-analyisis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>35.6</b> Variographic analyisis</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="36" data-path="activity-17-spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><a href="activity-17-spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>36</b> Activity 17: Spatially Continuous Data III</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="36.1" data-path="activity-17-spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><a href="activity-17-spatially-continuous-data-iii.html#practice-questions-14"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>36.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="36.2" data-path="activity-17-spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><a href="activity-17-spatially-continuous-data-iii.html#learning-objectives-35"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>36.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="36.3" data-path="activity-17-spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><a href="activity-17-spatially-continuous-data-iii.html#suggested-reading-16"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>36.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="36.4" data-path="activity-17-spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><a href="activity-17-spatially-continuous-data-iii.html#preliminaries-33"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>36.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="36.5" data-path="activity-17-spatially-continuous-data-iii.html"><a href="activity-17-spatially-continuous-data-iii.html#activity-16"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>36.5</b> Activity</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="37" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-iv.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-iv.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>37</b> Spatially Continuous Data IV</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="37.1" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-iv.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-iv.html#learning-objectives-36"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>37.1</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="37.2" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-iv.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-iv.html#suggested-reading-17"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>37.2</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="37.3" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-iv.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-iv.html#preliminaries-34"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>37.3</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="37.4" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-iv.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-iv.html#using-residual-spatial-pattern-to-estimate-prediction-errors"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>37.4</b> Using residual spatial pattern to estimate prediction errors</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="37.5" data-path="spatially-continuous-data-iv.html"><a href="spatially-continuous-data-iv.html#kriging-a-method-for-optimal-prediction."><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>37.5</b> Kriging: a method for optimal prediction.</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="38" data-path="activity-18-spatially-continuous-data-iv.html"><a href="activity-18-spatially-continuous-data-iv.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>38</b> Activity 18: Spatially Continuous Data IV</a>
<ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="38.1" data-path="activity-18-spatially-continuous-data-iv.html"><a href="activity-18-spatially-continuous-data-iv.html#practice-questions-15"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>38.1</b> Practice questions</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="38.2" data-path="activity-18-spatially-continuous-data-iv.html"><a href="activity-18-spatially-continuous-data-iv.html#learning-objectives-37"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>38.2</b> Learning objectives</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="38.3" data-path="activity-18-spatially-continuous-data-iv.html"><a href="activity-18-spatially-continuous-data-iv.html#suggested-reading-18"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>38.3</b> Suggested reading</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="38.4" data-path="activity-18-spatially-continuous-data-iv.html"><a href="activity-18-spatially-continuous-data-iv.html#preliminaries-35"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>38.4</b> Preliminaries</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="38.5" data-path="activity-18-spatially-continuous-data-iv.html"><a href="activity-18-spatially-continuous-data-iv.html#activity-17"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>38.5</b> Activity</a></li>
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<section class="normal" id="section-">
<div id="activity-9-area-data-i" class="section level1" number="20">
<h1><span class="header-section-number">Chapter 20</span> Activity 9: Area Data I</h1>
<p>Remember, you can download the source file for this activity from <a href="https://github.com/paezha/Spatial-Statistics-Course">here</a>.</p>
<div id="practice-questions-6" class="section level2" number="20.1">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">20.1</span> Practice questions</h2>
<p>Answer the following questions:</p>
<ol style="list-style-type: decimal">
<li>What is a key difference between area data and point data?</li>
<li>What is a choropleth map?</li>
<li>What is a cartogram?</li>
<li>What are the advantages and disadvantages of these mapping techniques?</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div id="learning-objectives-19" class="section level2" number="20.2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">20.2</span> Learning objectives</h2>
<p>In this activity, you will:</p>
<ol style="list-style-type: decimal">
<li>Create choroplet maps using census data.</li>
<li>Think about possible underlying process that could explain the pattern.</li>
<li>Think about ways to decide whether a landscape is random when working with area data.</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div id="suggested-reading-7" class="section level2" number="20.3">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">20.3</span> Suggested reading</h2>
<p>O’Sullivan D and Unwin D (2010) Geographic Information Analysis, 2nd Edition, Chapter 7. John Wiley & Sons: New Jersey.</p>
</div>
<div id="preliminaries-17" class="section level2" number="20.4">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">20.4</span> Preliminaries</h2>
<p>For this activity you will need the following:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>An R markdown notebook version of this document (the source file).</p></li>
<li><p>A package called <code>geog4ga3</code>.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>It is good practice to clear the working space to make sure that you do not have extraneous items there when you begin your work. The command in R to clear the workspace is <code>rm</code> (for “remove”), followed by a list of items to be removed. To clear the workspace from <em>all</em> objects, do the following:</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb426"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb426-1"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#cb426-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">rm</span>(<span class="at">list =</span> <span class="fu">ls</span>())</span></code></pre></div>
<p>Note that <code>ls()</code> lists all objects currently on the workspace.</p>
<p>Load the libraries you will use in this activity.</p>
<p>In addition to <code>tidyverse</code>, you will need <code>sf</code>, a package that implements simple features in R (you can learn more about this package <a href="https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/sf/vignettes/sf1.html">here</a>):</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb427"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb427-1"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#cb427-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">library</span>(tidyverse)</span>
<span id="cb427-2"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#cb427-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">library</span>(sf)</span>
<span id="cb427-3"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#cb427-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">library</span>(cartogram)</span>
<span id="cb427-4"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#cb427-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">library</span>(geog4ga3)</span></code></pre></div>
<p>In the practice that preceded this activity, you learned about the area data and visualization techniques for area data.</p>
<p>Begin by loading the data that you will use in this activity:</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb428"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb428-1"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#cb428-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">data</span>(<span class="st">"Hamilton_CT"</span>)</span></code></pre></div>
<p>This is an <code>sf</code> object with census tracts and selected demographic variables for the Hamilton CMA in Canada.</p>
<p>You can obtain new (calculated) variables as follows. For instance, to obtain the proportion of residents who are between 20 and 34 years old, and between 35 and 49:</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb429"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb429-1"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#cb429-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>Hamilton_CT <span class="ot"><-</span> Hamilton_CT <span class="sc">%>%</span></span>
<span id="cb429-2"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#cb429-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">mutate</span>(<span class="at">Prop20to34 =</span> (AGE_20_TO_24 <span class="sc">+</span> </span>
<span id="cb429-3"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#cb429-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> AGE_25_TO_29 <span class="sc">+</span> </span>
<span id="cb429-4"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#cb429-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> AGE_30_TO_34)<span class="sc">/</span>POPULATION, </span>
<span id="cb429-5"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#cb429-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="at">Prop35to49 =</span> (AGE_35_TO_39 <span class="sc">+</span> </span>
<span id="cb429-6"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#cb429-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> AGE_40_TO_44 <span class="sc">+</span> </span>
<span id="cb429-7"><a href="activity-9-area-data-i.html#cb429-7" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> AGE_45_TO_49)<span class="sc">/</span>POPULATION)</span></code></pre></div>
<p>You are ready for the next activity.</p>
</div>
<div id="activity-8" class="section level2" number="20.5">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">20.5</span> Activity</h2>
<p><strong>NOTE</strong>: Activities include technical “how to” tasks/questions. Usually, these ask you to organize data, create a plot, and so on in support of analysis and interpretation. These tasks are indicated by a star (*).</p>
<ol style="list-style-type: decimal">
<li><p>(*)Create choropleth maps for the proportion of the population who are 20 to 34 years old, 35 to 49 years old, 50 to 65 years old, and 65 and older.</p></li>
<li><p>(*)Create cartograms for the proportion of the population who are 20 to 34 years old, 35 to 49 years old, 50 to 65 years old, and 65 and older.</p></li>
<li><p>(*)Change the scheme and colors of your maps to obtain maps with 2 classes/colors, 5 classes/colors, and 10 classes/colors. You can check different color palettes <a href="https://ggplot2.tidyverse.org/reference/scale_brewer.html">in the documentation of <code>ggplot2</code></a>. Which scheme is more informative? What colors looked better to you?</p></li>
<li><p>Show your maps to a fellow student. What patterns do you notice in the distribution of population by age in Hamilton? Do you think the distribution of the population by age is random, or not random?</p></li>
<li><p>Devise a rule to decide whether the pattern observed in a choropleth map is random.</p></li>
</ol>
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